How US elections work

American elections are run by the states, held on a fixed calendar, and decided mostly by whoever gets the most votes in a single round. The big exception is the presidency, which is won in the Electoral College, not by the national popular vote. This guide covers who gets elected and when, how a president is chosen, how primaries work, who can vote, and what Americans argue about.

What gets elected, and when

Federal elections always fall on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November of an even-numbered year. Terms are fixed by the Constitution, so there are no snap elections.

A single ballot can run to dozens of races, plus ballot measures on which voters decide policy directly in many states. Congress itself is explained in how the US government works.

The Electoral College

Voters in a presidential election are technically choosing a slate of electors. Each state gets as many electors as it has members of Congress (House seats plus two senators), and Washington, D.C. gets 3 under the 23rd Amendment. That makes 538 in total, and a candidate needs 270 to win.

• Winner-take-all: in 48 states and D.C., the candidate with the most votes takes all the electors.
• Maine and Nebraska: these two award two electors to the statewide winner and one to the winner of each congressional district.
• Large and small: after the 2020 census, California has 54 electors, Texas 40, and the smallest states 3.
• Timing: electors meet in their states in mid-December, Congress counts the votes on January 6, and the new president takes office on January 20.
• A tie or no majority: the House picks the president, with each state delegation casting one vote, and the Senate picks the vice president.

Because states matter more than the national total, a candidate can win the presidency while losing the popular vote. That has happened five times: 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, and 2016. It also explains swing states. Campaigns concentrate on the few states that could go either way. In 2024 those were Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, Nevada, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

Supporters say the system reflects a federal union and forces candidates to build coalitions across regions. Critics say it gives some voters more weight than others and can override the national majority. Abolishing it would take a constitutional amendment. The National Popular Vote Interstate Compact is an alternative route: member states pledge their electors to the national winner, but only once members hold 270 electoral votes between them.

Primaries and caucuses

US parties do not simply name their candidates. Voters choose them in primaries, which are government-run elections held before the general election. That applies to almost every office, not just the presidency.

• Closed primary: only voters registered with that party can take part.
• Open primary: any registered voter can choose which party's primary to vote in.
• Top-two or top-four: in a few states, including California and Alaska, all candidates run on one ballot and the leaders advance regardless of party.
• Caucus: a party-run local meeting. Caucuses are now rare. Iowa is the best-known example, and most states that once used them have moved to primaries.

In presidential years, primaries and caucuses run state by state from early in the year until about June. Each contest awards delegates, and the delegates formally nominate the candidate at the party's national convention in the summer. The general-election campaign follows, usually with televised debates. For how the parties themselves operate, see Democrats vs. Republicans.

Midterm elections

Midterms fall halfway through a presidential term. The whole House, about a third of the Senate, and most governors are on the ballot, along with thousands of state and local races. The 2026 midterms take place on November 3, 2026, with 35 Senate seats (33 regular plus special elections in Ohio and Florida) and 36 governorships up. The Congress they produce takes office in January 2027.

Turnout is lower than in presidential years, and the president's party usually loses House seats. Midterms are therefore often read as a verdict on the president, although each race is a separate local contest.

Who can vote, and how

To vote in federal elections you must be a US citizen, at least 18 on Election Day, and a resident of the place where you register. Noncitizens, including green card holders, cannot vote in federal elections. Many rules beyond that are set by each state, because there is no national election authority.

• Registration: required everywhere except North Dakota. About two dozen states and D.C. have automatic registration, usually through the driver's license office, and many others allow registration up to or on Election Day. Elsewhere the deadline can be as much as 30 days before the vote.
• Voter ID: requirements range from strict photo ID to none at the polls.
• Early and mail voting: most states offer in-person early voting. All states allow mail ballots at least for some voters, and some mail one to every registered voter.
• Felony convictions: rules on voting range from never losing the right (Maine, Vermont, D.C.) to requiring a separate restoration process.
• Citizens abroad: Americans living overseas generally vote by absentee ballot through their last US state of residence.
• Territories: residents of Puerto Rico, Guam, and other territories have no electoral votes.

Turnout is measured against eligible citizens. It reached about 66% in 2020 and about 64% in 2024, high by recent US standards, while midterms ran at about 50% in 2018 and 46% in 2022.

Campaign money

American campaigns are privately funded and expensive. OpenSecrets estimates that federal races cost around $15 to $16 billion in each of the 2020 and 2024 cycles. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) enforces the rules.

• Individual donors: up to $3,500 per candidate, per election in the 2025-2026 cycle, so $7,000 for a primary and a general election together. The limit is indexed to inflation every two years.
• Corporations and unions: they cannot give directly to federal candidates, but they can fund political action committees (PACs).
• Super PACs: they can raise and spend unlimited sums as long as they do not coordinate with a campaign, following Citizens United (2010) and related rulings.
• Disclosure: campaigns report donors who give more than $200, but some nonprofit groups do not have to name theirs ("dark money").

What Americans argue about

Election rules are themselves a partisan subject, and many disputes end up in court.

• Gerrymandering: in most states, legislators draw House districts. The Supreme Court ruled in 2019 that federal courts cannot police partisan gerrymanders. Several states, including Texas, California, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, and Florida, adopted new maps ahead of 2026, an unusual step in the middle of a decade.
• The Voting Rights Act: in Louisiana v. Callais (2026), the Supreme Court ruled 6-3 that Section 2 of the Act did not require a second majority-Black district in Louisiana. Supporters say race should play less of a role in drawing districts; critics say the ruling makes minority voting claims much harder to win.
• Mail ballots: in Watson v. Republican National Committee (2026), the Court ruled 5-4 that states may count ballots mailed by Election Day that arrive afterward.
• Access and security: one side stresses ID checks and proof of citizenship to protect the rolls, and the other stresses barriers for eligible voters. A federal proof-of-citizenship bill, the SAVE America Act, stalled in the Senate in spring 2026, while some states passed their own versions.

How the US differs from Europe

• Decentralized: states and counties run elections, so ballots and rules differ across state lines.
• Frequent: the national legislature is elected every two years, and no one can call an early election.
• Long campaigns: presidential races last well over a year, against weeks or months in much of Europe.
• Candidate-centered: primaries let voters, not party leaders, pick nominees.
• Working day: federal Election Day is a Tuesday and is not a national holiday, though early voting softens this.
• Two parties: single-winner districts strongly favor two main parties, as explained in our guide to US political parties.

Related articles:

• How the US government works
• Democrats vs. Republicans: the parties compared
• States vs. the federal government
• The US Constitution explained